Architecture and Communication Protocols
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20570705Keywords:
Quantum Communication, Quantum Internet Architecture, Quantum Information Exchange, Quantum Mechanics Protocols, Bell Inequalities, No-Cloning Principle, Quantum Channel Capacity, Quantum Teleportation Advantage, Layered Quantum Networks, Quantum Protocol Stack, Quantum Key Distribution, Entanglement Distribution, Metropolitan Quantum Networks, Quantum Network Threat Models, Quantum Security And Privacy, Quantum Channels, Networked Quantum Information, End-To-End Quantum Protocols, Entanglement Swapping, Nonideal Quantum Performance.Abstract
Quantum communication and the quantum internet are converging subfields of research based on the application of quantum mechanics to the exchange of information, either to enhance existing protocols or to enable entirely new ones. Milestones in this journey include Bell inequalities, indistinguishability-proof secret-key distribution, uncertainty, and no-cloning; the proof of the quantum channel capacity theorem; and the exponential advantage of quantum teleportation over the classical teleportation of qubits. The quantum internet is fundamentally layered, akin to the classical internet but enabling the orchestration of quantum mechanics in a protocol stack that may span multiple administrations. Achievements to date cover many ground-layer requirements for quantum key distribution and entanglement distribution, enabling basic demonstrations of provably secure secret-key generation between metropolitan quantum networks. A threat model for quantum networks and a thorough discussion on security and privacy emphasize the unique nature of quantum mechanics as a potential asset in devising security protocols.
Quantum communication is defined as the exchange of information between physical systems described by quantum mechanics, and entanglement is perhaps the most distinctive aspect of quantum information theory. Quantum channels connect separated quantum systems, allowing the distribution of quantum information over distance. In networked quantum information, a number of parties need not only prepare or measure quantum information but also rely on the successful transmission of quantum information over a quantum network. End-to-end quantum communication protocols supporting specific tasks—quantum key distribution; indistinguishability-proof secret-key distribution; quantum teleportation; state transfer and entanglement swapping in quantum relays; and entanglement distribution—have been formulated and investigated from a physical-layer perspective. Each protocol is examined according to vulnerability to nonideal conditions and realistic operation requirements, enabling comparisons of achievable performance. While advantages of quantum protocols are becoming practical, their exploitation in practice demands careful attention to nonideal performance and the avoidance of unrealistic assumptions.
References
[1] Wehner, S., Elkouss, D., & Hanson, R. (2018). Quantum internet: A vision for the road ahead. Science, 362(6412), eaam9288.
[2] Kimble, H. J. (2008). The quantum internet. Nature, 453(7198), 1023–1030.
[3] Van Meter, R. (2014). Quantum networking. Wiley.
[4] Pirandola, S., Andersen, U. L., Banchi, L., et al. (2020). Advances in quantum cryptography. Advances in Optics and Photonics, 12(4), 1012–1236.
[5] Pirandola, S., Laurenza, R., Ottaviani, C., & Banchi, L. (2017). Fundamental limits of repeaterless quantum communications. Nature Communications, 8, 15043.
[6] Bennett, C. H., Brassard, G., Crépeau, C., Jozsa, R., Peres, A., & Wootters, W. K. (1993). Teleporting an unknown quantum state via dual classical and Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen channels. Physical Review Letters, 70(13), 1895–1899.
[7] Briegel, H. J., Dür, W., Cirac, J. I., & Zoller, P. (1998). Quantum repeaters. Physical Review Letters, 81(26), 5932–5935.
[8] Gisin, N., Ribordy, G., Tittel, W., & Zbinden, H. (2002). Quantum cryptography. Reviews of Modern Physics, 74(1), 145–195.
[9] Scarani, V., Bechmann-Pasquinucci, H., Cerf, N. J., et al. (2009). The security of practical quantum key distribution. Reviews of Modern Physics, 81(3), 1301–1350.
[10] Acín, A., Pironio, S., Vértesi, T., et al. (2012). Randomness versus nonlocality and entanglement. Physical Review Letters, 108(10), 100402.
[11] Pironio, S., Acín, A., Massar, S., et al. (2010). Random numbers certified by Bell’s theorem. Nature, 464(7291), 1021–1024.
[12] Ekert, A. K. (1991). Quantum cryptography based on Bell’s theorem. Physical Review Letters, 67(6), 661–663.
[13] Lo, H. K., Curty, M., & Qi, B. (2012). Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution. Physical Review Letters, 108(13), 130503.
[14] Pirandola, S., & Braunstein, S. L. (2016). Unite to build a quantum internet. Nature, 532(7598), 169–171.
[15] Pant, M., Krovi, H., Englund, D., et al. (2019). Routing entanglement in the quantum internet. npj Quantum Information, 5, 25.
[16] Kozlowski, W., Wehner, S., & Dahlberg, A. (2021). Architectural principles for a quantum internet. Quantum Science and Technology, 6(4), 044001.
[17] Dahlberg, A., & Wehner, S. (2019). Transforming graph states using single-qubit operations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 376(2123), 20170325.
[18] Murta, G., Van Meter, R., Caleffi, M., & Benjamin, S. C. (2020). Towards a quantum internet. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 22(4), 2991–3031.
[19] Caleffi, M., Van Meter, R., & Zorzi, M. (2018). Classical control and management of quantum networks. IEEE Network, 32(6), 58–64.
[20] Gyongyosi, L., Imre, S., & Nguyen, H. V. (2018). A survey on quantum channel capacities. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 20(2), 1149–1205.
[21] Takeoka, M., Guha, S., & Wilde, M. M. (2014). Fundamental rate-loss tradeoff for optical quantum key distribution. Nature Communications, 5, 5235.
[22] Wilde, M. M. (2017). Quantum information theory (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[23] Nielsen, M. A., & Chuang, I. L. (2010). Quantum computation and quantum information. Cambridge University Press.
[24] Preskill, J. (2018). Quantum computing in the NISQ era and beyond. Quantum, 2, 79.
[25] Sangouard, N., Simon, C., de Riedmatten, H., & Gisin, N. (2011). Quantum repeaters based on atomic ensembles. Reviews of Modern Physics, 83(1), 33–80.
[26] Humphreys, P. C., Kalb, N., Morits, J. P. J., et al. (2018). Deterministic delivery of remote entanglement. Nature, 558(7709), 268–273.
[27] Yin, J., Cao, Y., Li, Y. H., et al. (2017). Satellite-based entanglement distribution over 1200 kilometers. Science, 356(6343), 1140–1144.
[28] Wang, S., Chen, W., Yin, Z. Q., et al. (2020). Field and long-distance demonstration of a wide area quantum key distribution network. Optics Express, 28(3), 4164–4176.
[29] Calderaro, L., Agnesi, C., Dequal, D., et al. (2018). Towards quantum communication from global navigation satellite system. Quantum Science and Technology, 4(1), 015012.
[30] Azuma, K., Tamaki, K., & Lo, H. K. (2015). All-photonic quantum repeaters. Nature Communications, 6, 6787.
[31] Pirandola, S. (2019). End-to-end capacities of a quantum communication network. Communications Physics, 2, 51.
[32] Dahlberg, A., Skrzypczyk, P., Coopmans, T., et al. (2019). A link layer protocol for quantum networks. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM Conference, 159–173.
[33] Cuquet, M., & Calsamiglia, J. (2012). Entanglement percolation in quantum networks. Physical Review Letters, 108(19), 190504.
[34] Van Meter, R., Satoh, T., Ladd, T. D., et al. (2016). Path selection for quantum repeater networks. Networking Science, 3(1–4), 82–95.
[35] Elkouss, D., & Wehner, S. (2021). Quantum network protocols. Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics, 12, 301–329.
Additional Files
Published
Data Availability Statement
None
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Authors retain full copyright of their published work. Under this license, others are free to share, copy, distribute, transmit, remix, transform, and build upon the published work for any purpose, including commercial use, provided that appropriate credit is given to the original authors, a link to the license is provided, and any changes made are clearly indicated. No additional restrictions may be applied that limit others from doing anything the license permits. All published articles are freely and permanently accessible online to readers worldwide without any subscription or access fees.
License URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
